A new tooth.
The bridge that holds it in place.

In Etruria, in what is now Italy, a new tooth was not merely a question of material. It also had to be secured in place. Preserved artefacts and their museum replicas show gold strips with space for a replacement tooth and a metal fastening. Gold could be shaped and joined to form a delicate structure.

Such a replacement was mainly available to the wealthy. It is also interesting in that we can already see two distinct functions: the tooth fills the gap, whilst the structure holds it in place amongst the other teeth. The materials and possibilities were different, but the fundamental practical question remains relevant to us to this day.

The museum artefact in the photograph is a modern replica of the historical structure — not the original 2,700-year-old object.

The Science Museum’s collections include metal instruments known as ‘dental pelicans’. They are so named because of their shape. They worked like a lever: one part rested against the area surrounding the tooth, whilst the other gripped it. Today, they are primarily a testament to the craftsmanship and capabilities of their time.

For the individual, however, the story did not end with the removal of the tooth. A gap remained, visible when smiling or speaking. Finding a way to extract the tooth and finding an acceptable replacement were two distinct tasks. It was precisely the latter that remained far more difficult for ordinary people to achieve for a long time.

The Royal Museums Greenwich state that Elizabeth I was also fond of candied violets. This sweet indulgence took its toll on her teeth. The German traveller Paul Hentzner, in his description of the Queen, mentioned their dark colour and the high consumption of sugar amongst the English. His account is also referenced by the British National Archives.

In ceremonial portraits, we see a carefully crafted image of the monarch. A contemporary description reminds us of the person behind that image: someone whose appearance and public demeanour were also influenced by the condition of her teeth. The history of the smile is therefore not just about inventions. It is also about how we wish to present ourselves to others.

By the time George Washington became president, he had only one of his own teeth left. The Mount Vernon Museum houses his complete set of dentures and explains that they were made from a combination of different materials. The idea of dentures carved from wood is a myth.

In the 18th century, human teeth were purchased for use by wealthier customers. Washington’s accounts from May 1784 record a payment for nine teeth from enslaved people. Mount Vernon also points out that we do not know in which dentures or for which patients these specific teeth ended up.

This trade was also depicted in contemporary satire. Rowlandson’s illustration shows a world in which the desire for new teeth clashed with the inequality between those who bought them and those who provided them.

A denture might have had a base carved from ivory into which real human teeth were set. Preserved objects in the Science Museum’s collections show that this is not merely a legend. The term ‘Waterloo teeth’ today also serves as a reminder of the link between the trade in teeth and the battlefields of war.

However, not all human teeth in period dentures came from a single battle. They were obtained from various sources, and for many of the preserved items, their exact origin is no longer known. The Hunterian Museum therefore distinguishes specific teeth associated with Waterloo from the wider collection of historical dentures.

We can see the finished denture, but the stories of the people whose teeth it contains often remain unknown.

In the mid-19th century, vulcanite, a hard form of vulcanised rubber, began to be used in the manufacture of dentures. It could serve as a base into which porcelain teeth were set. The Science Museum also holds complete dentures from the end of that century which combine these materials.

The British Orthodontic Society describes its introduction as a significant turning point. The industry gained a mouldable material for the base of dentures, and expensive constructions made from ivory or metal gradually gave way to a more affordable alternative. In the 20th century, polymers became widespread, including PMMA, commonly known as acrylic.

Research into historical dentures also shows that development did not follow a single, straight path. Celluloid and other plastics were also used. Each material offered a different combination of appearance, workability and properties.